The content analysis for this week was on how schools can integrate digital citizenship into existing curricula without it feeling like an ‘add-on. The group that presented this topic did an amazing job of exploring the Saskatchewan curriculum and identifying elements of digital citizenship that could be integrated into some of the themes across the subjects. I think it would be nice to remind ourselves again about the elements of digital citizenship, which include digital access, digital etiquette, digital law, digital commerce, digital communication, digital literacies, digital rights and responsibilities, digital health and wellness, and digital security (self-protection).

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

Reflecting on how digital citizenship can be integrated into everyday lessons, Merve and Paul (2018) described five easy ways to do this, and it includes the following:

• Modelling balance and distraction-free time: Educators need to demonstrate healthy technology habits and create a classroom framework that allocates time for maintaining attention and focusing while also encouraging students to reflect on their own technology use and its alignment with their values and goals.
• Using media to start discussions: This requires incorporating popular media such as movies, books, and podcasts to initiate conversations about digital citizenship. This can include using discussion questions or pairing media with relevant lessons to deepen understanding.
• Integrating quick activities: This has to do with utilizing short, video-based lessons that can be easily incorporated into various class periods. These activities can facilitate engaging discussions on digital citizenship and can be adapted for different grade levels.
• Making core subject connections: This involves finding creative ways to connect digital citizenship to core subjects. For example, using data on cellphone use in math lessons or discussing brain chemistry in biology classes can help students understand the implications of technology on their lives.
• Stay updated on trends: This could include signing up for newsletters or resources that provide current information on online trends, which can then be discussed in class. This  can help keep the conversation relevant and timely.

Relating the lesson presentation to my class experience, one way that I have integrated digital citizenship into my lesson is through engaging my students in science investigations using the PhET simulation and interactive simulation app. After which they were requested to communicate their findings using graphs. I can also remember giving students project-based activities where they were required to collaboratively research a concept and communicate their findings with one another in preparation for classroom presentations. So, I think there are different ways that elements of digital citizenship can be integrated into existing curriculum or subject without teaching it separately. Reflecting on one of the discussions during the breakout session, I think I can also integrate elements of digital citizenship into the FL10.3 outcome for Financial Literacy 10, which states “Research products and services provided by various financial institutions.”. In meeting this outcome, elements of digital access could be integrated into the activity where students will be allowed to participate in online searches about specific banks to gather information on the services they provide, after which students could communicate this information to people in their community.   In the words of Miranda, “digital citizenship can be taught in schools in simple ways without feeling like an add-on”

This week’s lesson was on tools for online and distance learning. Just as the presenters indicated during the section, distance or online education encompasses various methods of delivering educational content remotely, primarily through digital technologies and the Internet. The presenters also talked about how the use of online learning in distance education reflects the social constructivist principles of learning through social interaction and discussion.

Image from https://blog.simplitaught.com/online-learning-tools/

This approach has gained prominence, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, as it allows for flexible learning opportunities while overcoming geographical barriers. Reflecting on my own context as a teacher educator, I have had the opportunity of using Blackboard Collaborate as a Learning Management System (LMS) and Microsoft Teams for blended and online learning. These two tools were recommended for use by the institution, and I find them very useful. Just as indicated in one of the provided resources, using Microsoft Teams for education offers a user-friendly interface and collaborative features that facilitate lively interaction among students and teachers. This fosters effective communication and enhances learning outcomes. The Microsoft Teams application also provides seamless access to cloud storage folders like OneDrive and tools like Word and Excel. The application also provides the opportunity to create and manage team sessions and assignments and integrate additional productivity tools like forms, polls, Kahoot, and YouTube videos to enhance learning. Another reason I like this Microsoft Teams tool is that I find it very easy to share and work together on documents with colleagues in real life, and it also has chat features that can be used as a discussion board.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA 

Reflecting on how Black Collaborate was used, I remembered that the platform allows lecturers to upload content, and students could download, watch, or playback these contents at their own convenience. So students are able to control the space at which they learn; even after the lecture has been completed, they can go back to access the lesson recordings and additional reading materials provided for the course. I think this also helps students to sometimes have the autonomy of pausing and reflecting on their learning before moving into the next phase of their self study. In addition, the collaborate platform also allows students to do online formative and summative assessments. Reflecting on the lesson presentation, issues related to access to these tools and how they could impact learning were discussed. I think everything in life comes with benefits and challenges, and as individuals, we are to choose what we desire. Based on the context of where I have used these tools, the institution provides free access to the tools provided students are using the registered institution’s ID. Nevertheless, the issue of broadband and sometimes the cost of getting network connectivity has always played out just as discussed during the presentation, and I think that cannot be changed. However, I think these online learning tools have made distance education more accessible for students, even in remote areas.

The lesson presented in the 5^th class was an important one that focused on various application programs that can be used in today’s digital world.  Ayushi, Gagan, and Mohammad did an excellent presentation on productivity suites, and presentation tools. The presenters elaborated much on the importance of these tools and how they become essential parts of our lives. In one of the resources shared by the presenters, productivity suites were described as a suite of tools designed to streamline tasks and boost output, including applications for creating documents, databases, graphs, spreadsheets, and presentations. While its core focus is on enhancing efficiency, the term is often expanded to include any software used in our personal and professional lives to assist us in communicating, collaborating, planning, and getting work done. According to the presenters and other existing literature, productivity suites play a pivotal role in enhancing digital literacy and 21st-century skills among students, equipping them for future workforce demands. Voogt and Roblin (2010) described 21st century skills “as an overarching concept for the knowledge, skills, and dispositions citizens need to be able to contribute to the knowledge society” (p. 1).

https://www.icevonline.com/blog/what-are-21st-century-skills

Reflecting on my experience in the use of productivity tools and softwares like Canvas, PowerPoint, Prezi, Animoto, Google documents, and Microsoft Office, and looking at the list of these skills as outlined in the figure below, I can say that indeed using these tools has in one way or another helped me develop essential competencies that are vital in today’s interconnected world. As an educator, I think integrating productivity suites into learning not only facilitates academic growth but also prepares students for real-world challenges. We live in a world where technology has enabled students to become active participants and creators in classrooms. Using productivity suites like word documents PowerPoint, even AI embedded platforms like Dale, and so on is empowering students to become active creators, which in turn helps develop their digital literacy.  As an educator, I have seen students work together on projects and assignments, communicate and collaborate through sending of emails or sharing of documents. All these are characteristics of 21st century skills, and the only way they were able to exhibit this was through the use of these Microsoft tools.  There are also some hands on activities and online platforms that have been tailored for young children to learn so as to establish a foundation for developing their digital skills. Due to the technology-driven environment we find ourselves in, it has become essential that every individual be digitally literate, and this is very essential in addition to the 21st century skills. So even people don’t want to embed themselves in the world of technology; it seems most employers now look for people that can solve problems using basic Microsoft Office programs, which I think can only be developed through productivity suites.

Looking at the gaps they leave, Orta (2019) identified substantial disparities in digital skills among students from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, emphasizing the importance of equitable access to technology and effective digital teaching methods.In addition, Ramamonjisoa (2024) argued that the use of productivity suites may not fully address the complexities of social-emotional learning and global citizenship, which are vital for the holistic development of students.

In this week’s class, we had a wonderful discussion presented by Prof Couros on digital Identity.  This concept was also well discussed in the presentation by Britanny and Josh.  The issue of digital identity is really a big problem especially among the youths and teens. Khrapov et al. (2024) described digital identity as a projection of real identity, formed through interactions in digital environments, which can lead to a merging of online and offline personas. Kraynov (2024) claims that digital identity allows individuals to navigate opportunities in both personal and professional contexts, such as job searches and social connections.

creative commons

So, if I am to interpret this… I would say my digital identity is like my online personality, and it has to do with how I show myself to the world online, through my social media profiles, online interactions, and the different characters I create for myself in online spaces.  This reminds me of the saying ‘you are what you wear’, which I think can be applied to our online lives as well. People often try to present themselves in a positive light online, even if that doesn’t reflect their true selves. I’ve noticed this on social media platforms like Facebook and Instagram, where people tend to share carefully curated content. Sadly, some people (especially teenagers) develop their physical identity based on these online curated contents. They start to either aspire, behave or live like the artists, musicians and role models whose lifestyle has been presented in a certain way online without understanding the true nature of these people in their physical life.  Unfortunately, a lot of people seem to be fake in their online world.  The above statement buttressed one of Josh’s points on the significance of defining one’s digital identity, noting that many individuals become confused about their genuine selves by prioritizing societal norms and expectations over personal authenticity. While I mainly use these social media websites to share events from my church and workplace, I’m aware that my posts can still influence others.

Lioune’s (2023) article on the Illusion of Self in the Digital Age: Unraveling Our Multiple Identities, highlighted how our online behaviors can impact how we perceive ourselves. She noted that our fragmented online activities, such as projecting professionalism on LinkedIn, showcasing our adventurous side on Instagram, and engaging in witty commentary on Twitter, contribute to our overall digital identity. From a professional stance, I feel the digital world is a larger space that helps people network and exposes them to potential career opportunities nationally and internationally (Lupton et al., 2019). I think this view aligns with my regular visit and activity on LinkedIn and ResearchGate. I am always conscious of what I post online because of the nature of what I do. However, I feel this digital identity thing is also taking too much of individual’s personal information which we have to be cautious about. That is why I use more of the professional platforms than the regular social media sites.

References

Andrey, L., Kraynov. (2024). 1. Digital identity as a condition of human existence in a digital society. Izvestiâ Saratovskogo universiteta. Novaâ seriâ,  https://doi.org/10.18500/1819-7671-2024-24-2-137-141

Lupton, M., Oddone, K., & Dreamson, N. (2019). Students professional digital identities. In Higher Education and the Future of Graduate Employability (pp. 30-49). Edward Elgar Publishing.  https://doi.org/10.4337/9781788972611.00010

Sergey, A., Khrapov., Svetlana, Kryuchkova., I.M., Melikov. (2024).  Digital Identity and the Humanistic Model of Digital Educational Environment. Voprosy Filosofii, 7, 29 -39 https://doi.org/10.21146/0042-8744-2024-7-29-39

Just as with many new technologies of the past, artificial intelligence is encountering resistance and skepticism. Nevertheless, several scholars have argued about how AI can provide easy access to educational resources and all that.  As Kniberg explains and the video demonstrates, generative artificial intelligence is a technology system equipped with deep learning models that allows it to learn, think, communicate as humans, as well as perform creative intellectual tasks that previously only humans could do. In my line of work, I have come across a range of AI tools, including OpenAI’s ChatGPT, Google Gemini, Khamingo AI (https://www.khanmigo.ai/teachers), QuillBot, ResearchRabbit, Dall-E, Grammarly, Turnitin, and Gradescope, to mention a few. I have found myself using one or more of these tools for brainstorming ideas that I had initially conceived but wasn’t sure how to fully explore or find relevant materials for. For students that are not native English speakers, using Grammarly has been very helpful in correcting grammar mistakes, checking spelling errors, and identifying the tone of one’s writing in terms of passive or active voices.

Image copied from Linkdeln

Beth Holland’s article, “Can AI Solve the Uniquely Human Challenges Facing Educators Today, “explores how AI can be a valuable tool in addressing the challenges faced by educators, especially in the wake of the pandemic and staffing shortages. Holland highlights AI’s potential to support personalized and individualized instruction, which is crucial for meeting diverse student needs. Henrik Kniberg points out that AI can assist in grading tests and generating course content. I know a lot of educators are sceptical about the use of AI in their classroom. However, I think understanding the goal behind the use of these tools in the classroom can help educators navigate how to effectively utilize them.

An infographic shared on linkedin by Dr Alec Couros.

In a recent study by Ramnarain et al. (2024), preservice science teachers’ intentions to use generative AI in inquiry-based teaching were examined. The study found that preservice teachers believe AI can support students during the orientation and conceptualisation phases of inquiry learning, promote learner autonomy, accommodate individual needs, simulate experiments in school situations with limited equipment and chemicals, and help check the correctness of procedures.  Despite the potential power of AI in providing personalized learning, scholars have indicated that teachers still remain essential guides for students. Nevertheless, it is argued that students who miss out on opportunities to learn about and use AI may struggle to keep up in the modern workforce, potentially hindering their ability to find jobs that utilize AI (Vanderpool & Jones, 2024). I was priviledged to listen to a webinar by David Wiley on how AI will transform access to open education resources, and he also shared these  posts (https://lnkd.in/gtbXpinu ;  https://lnkd.in/en2TJPsa). The discussion actually got me thinking about how my little use of some AI platforms helped me identify some online resources easily without necessarily going through the trouble of checking if the material is licensed or not. Personally, I think AI as a new technology has the potential to help us address a lot of problem in education, but I think teachers will need to learn how to effectively prompt these tools to help them achieve its maximun use, Yes, AI has its own risks, just as I said in the begining, that is the same risk we faced with new technologies when they first introduced and people began accepting the use of those technologies overtime. I think, AI will get better in a matter of years and people will develop strategies in using AI just like every other technology.

Based on this week’s discussion on theories of knowledge and reading “The Nature of Knowledge and the Implications for Teaching by Bates and Bates (2019), I had to do a quick reflection on my secondary school experience as a science student. I recall having a teacher (Mr. A), whose teaching approach made me dislike physics as a subject. Mr A was always objective about his teaching and presented physics as a body of knowledge consisting of facts, formulas, terminology, principles, and theories to be learned. As a result, physics was very boring to me in grade 10 because Mr A would only read out notes without engaging students in hands-on practical, unlike our chemistry teacher. However, in grade 11, a new and fantastic teacher (Mr B) arrived. He engaged us in practical experiments and project activities related to the concepts we learned in class. He often demonstrated activities, encouraged us to make observations and predictions, and then facilitated further discussions or notes on the concepts. We even went on school trips to see how what we learned in class applied to the real world and visited communities to understand how science is embedded in indigenous practices.  Mr B’s teaching style which is aligned with the constructivit approach transformed my perception of physics and inspired me to study physics education at the university. Just like some students, I have always had the misconception that…………

r/meme from reddit.com

based on the experience with Mr. A, who had always been objective in his teaching and sometimes transmissive in his lesson presentation. However, my experience with Mr. B changed this belief and became the inspiration for my own approach as a teacher.

So, if I am to relate Mr B’s approach to this week’s class discussion, I could see elements of constructivism theory in his teaching style, which has also been the foundation of my teaching philosophy.

Mr. B’s approach can be likened to the constructivist theory that posits “learning as an essential social process, requiring communication between learner, teacher, and others” (Bates & Bates, 2019). The theory focuses on students’ active engagement in learning, where teachers build students understanding through thoughtful reflection and analysis. I believe in this Chinese proverb from the Froebel Journal (1967) that says, “What I hear, I forget; what I see, I remember; and what I do, I understand. My interpretation of this expression is that children already have some foundational knowledge of whatever they are being taught based on their surroundings, however, they tend to learn better when they are actively engaged in the teaching process, using experiences from their immediate surroundings to explore concepts taught in the classroom (i.e., learn by doing). However, over the course of my teaching career, I have realised that children are unique in their individual being and tend to learn differently. Hence, the type of approach I use in my class will depend on the topic explored. Nevertheless, I see that the “asking question” component of inquiry learning, which is aligned with the constructivist approach, is a fundamental component of my practice, and it can be adapted to any teaching style.

In the medium article on Skinner’s teaching machine by Abhishek Solanki (2019), the author indicated that the teaching machine is based on Skinner’s belief that “changes in human behavior are a response to external events that occur in the environment”. According to Abishek, Skinner’s teaching machine operated on the principles of operant conditioning (using reward and punishment to modify the development of behaviors) and programmed learning (allowing students to learn step-by-step, ensuring they grasp each concept before moving on to the next), designed to enhance the educational experience by providing individualized instruction (adaptive learning). As a school teacher and a teacher educator, assessment also plays an important role in determining my students learning. I have always found myself using multiple choice questions and fill-in-the blank questions to explore students understanding of what was taught and using their responses to provide feedback.  But, I sometimes feel this does not test the true understanding of students because it is either true or false, right or wrong. These methods do not assess in-depth knowledge and application of concepts taught. However, I have also tried incorporating problem-solving tasks that challenge students thinking and ability to apply concepts taught in practical activities. These activities sometimes require students to research ideas and do presentation in class or sometimes perform experiments in group with little guidance.  I think this approach mirrors the constructivist theory.

https://freepngimg.com/png/14062-ecommerce-png-file

As a parent, online shopping has simplified my life. Digital commerce has allowed me to discover and purchase unique cultural items from around the world. I appreciate the ability to connect with sellers across the world and customize my purchases. While online shopping offers many advantages, I am cautious about potential scams and fraud. To mitigate risks, I carefully research companies and read reviews before making purchases. I also like the fact that the bank confirms every transaction with me before releasing the funds from my account. Digital commerce has transformed the way we interact, including our financial transactions. Online banking has made international and local payments much more convenient compared to a decade ago.   Relating this to the learning environment, I think with digital commerce I was able to gather a lot of information about the products I want to buy. I am able to compare and contrast prices and various features of a product before making decisions on what suits me best.

As an educator, I use various online platforms for teaching, and I usually encourage my students to share ideas and discussions on these platforms. A typical example is the use of a discussion board in the Moodle learning management system. I realize that there are some students who find it difficult to express themselves in class, but they easily reply to every post on the discussion board. On the other hand, there are students who never replied to the discussion board. So for these students, I do call them during online presentations to share their thoughts. There are rules guiding the use of this online platform, and I usually tell my students to respect others’ opinions. One thing I also try to do is to give students a project that will require them to search for information online and then do a presentation on that project. However, I usually advise the students to try as much as possible to evaluate the credibility of the online sources they are using and avoid sharing personal information in the online space.

https://ukrainianlaw.blogspot.com/2019/

I think one significant thing that I have always done is continuous sharing of information with my students on how to report any suspicious online activity to the class and avoid using inappropriate words when sharing online artifacts. Seriously, Ribble’s framework is a good one, but how many teachers actually have the leisure of time to implement all these in their classroom? Probably, schools need to have teachers dedicated to explicitly teaching digital literacy. Although many teachers are not equipped to teach or even integrate most elements of the framework in their subject discipline, I think engaging teachers in targeted professional development and sharing useful online resources with teachers can help mitigate some of the challenges that might prevent teachers from implementing elements of Riblle’s framework in the classroom.

Seriously, I do not know how the effectiveness of digital citizenship initiatives within the school or district can be evaluated using the Ribble’s 9 elements. But, if I am to explore this from my experience as a researcher, I think the best approach will be to probably conduct an observation of how students within a school or district behave and interact online using Ribble’s framework to assess their adherence to the principles of digital citizenship.  Doing this observation might also create the opportunity to get teachers and parents perceptions on how elements of this framework could influence school culture and students behaviour. I think this will give the district and school a better understanding of the effectiveness of established initiatives on digital citizenship.

As I conclude from my reflection, digital technology has become ubiquitous and is driving transformation even as we head to the 5th Industrial Revolution.I feel Ribble’s framework is very important and might possibly contribute to shaping our attitudes and online interactions as digital citizens since technology keeps evolving. However, the key aspect for me in this framework is digital privacy. One can hardly access a digital tool without registering their information. So, my question is: how can we have free access to tools and all other forms of technology without necessarily providing our information online?

Dean’s discussion on digital “Visitors and Residents” during the first week of class sparked a lot of thought. In the real world, a visitor is someone who temporarily stays in a place for a specific purpose, like socializing, conducting business, or exploring. So, in the digital realm, “visitors” are individuals who have specific objectives and use the internet to find tools that help them accomplish those goals. They are temporary participants in the online world. For instance, I see myself as a visitor whenever I use my smartphone to search for an address or a location on Google Maps, and then disconnect to physically visit the location. My online activity tends to leave minimal traces and has limited social impact, especially when operating in this visitor’s mode.

Digital residents, unlike visitors, are deeply embedded in online communities. They have established connections, friendships, and virtual spaces. Unlike visitors who have specific tasks, residents are online to connect with others. They participate actively in online communities through social media platforms, sharing content, and engaging in conversations. This online activity reflects their identity and fosters relationships, making the internet an essential part of their lives.

My understanding of “visitors” and “residents” in social media mirrors the tools I use daily. I’m surprised by the extent of my social media toolkit, which I hadn’t fully realized before.

Reflecting on this week’s readings and my personal experiences with technology, I have realized that information and activities related to our lives are no longer private. Technology has infiltrated our privacy and become an integral part of our daily lives, including in schools and workplaces. Just as we need to provide identification for government services, having a digital identity has become crucial for accessing online platforms, applications, and resources from schools and organizations worldwide. Research defines digital identity as an individual’s online representation, encompassing digital attributes, credentials, and personal information (Amenta et al., 2015; Başoğlu, 2024). The blog post on (Digital) Identity in a World that No Longer Forgets by Couros and Hildebrandt (2015) discusses the complexities and challenges of managing digital identities in an age where online actions are permanently recorded. The authors highlighted the importance of understanding how difficult it is to erase negative aspects of one’s digital footprint due to the permanence of online content. However, the societal expectation is that individuals should be able to manage their digital footprints effectively by curating their online presence to overshadow past mistakes and deleting negative images, videos or commentaries and replacing them with positive ones.

Canva generated Image

Gone are those days when we write letters to chat with family and friends or wait to attend events before we can network. Technological innovation has transformed how we use social media platforms to network and communicate information. However, from my experience, there is a lot of content on social media platforms that is fabricated and deceptive. Unfortunately, this information is leading teenagers to make decisions that do not align with the reality of life. I have met with a lot of parents who have tried persuading their teens to use social media, but instead, the situation is getting better; it just keeps getting worse to the extent that these kids try to create several private accounts for doing negative stuff, which ends up boomeranging on them. Just like the article by Homayoun (2017) on the secret social media lives of teenagers, I think it is important that parents begin to engage in open discussions with their young children and teens about online activities and behaviours rather than monitoring them or putting limitations on what they can and cannot access. This is an essential part of digital citizenship that involves teaching kids how to behave responsibly on digital platforms. Many of today’s teenagers construct their identities through social media platforms and whatever identity they create today plays a significant role in their future endevours because these platforms now retain information that can be used in the future. So, I think parents, schools, and teachers need to help teens recognize the interconnectedness of their online and offline lives and encourage them to develop their own values regarding appropriate online behaviours (images, comments, videos etc).

References

Amenta, V., Lazzaroni, A., & Abba, L. (2015). Internet Identity and the Right to be Forgotten: International Trends and Regulatory Perspectives. In Handbook of Research on Redesigning the Future of Internet Architectures (pp. 32-46). IGI Global.

Başoğlu, A. B. Z. (2024). Navigating Virtual Realities and Hybrid Spaces in the Tron Cinematic Landscape. In Studies on Cinematography and Narrative in Film: Sequels, Serials, and Trilogies (pp. 19-41). IGI Global.

Couros, A. & Hildebrandt, K. (2015). (Digital) Identity in a World that No Longer Forgets. Available at https://katiahildebrandt.ca/digital-identity-in-a-world-that-no-longer-forgets/

Homayoun, A. (2017).The Secret Social Media Lives of Teenagers. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/07/well/family/the-secret-social-media-lives-of-teenagers.html

Image generated by AI

As an educator, I am required to plan my lessons before going to the classroom. Lesson planning requires the use of various instructional resources that can help guide the selection of appropriate content, tasks, teaching strategies, and feedback mechanisms that teachers can use to enhance learners’ understanding. These instructional resources can include the use of print and non-print materials as well as technology resources.  As an experienced classroom teacher and a science education lecturer, I have had the opportunity to use various hardware, like projectors and laptops, and software, like the Unity app, simulations, and ed apps, in my class. These hardware and software resources encompass a subset of what is called ‘educational technology.”

Reflecting back to how technology was used in my primary and secondary school days, educational technology was more about the use of audio aids (recordings), visual aids (VHS videos) and audiovisual aids (television programs), particularly during special events at schools or in the home. Unfortunately, these technologies did not promote active learning because they were more centred on the presenters (teachers) and the material itself. However, the emergence of modern technologies has provided more opportunity for enhancing the learning and communication process, thereby promoting students active engagement and encouraging personalized learning. In line with the arguments of Bates in his book titled “Teaching in a Digital Age,”  educational technology has also been viewed from the perspective of oral communications and written communications.

According to Kozma (1994), technology can be understood as a tool characterized by specific attributes that determine its functionality, and its ability to represent information and assist learners in creating and manipulating mental models. In other words, one can consider educational technology as tools, technologies, and resources that can enhance learning experiences. This includes hardware like computers and software like simulations and LMS, as well as emerging technologies like AR and VR (Huang et al., 2019). It’s grounded in educational theories on behavior, cognition, processes, and knowledge construction that are applied in technology development (Ouyang & Stanley, 2014).

References

1. Huang, R., Spector, J. M., & Yang, J. (2019). Educational Technology: A Primer for the 21st. Springer: USA, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6643-7_1
2. Ouyang, J. R., & Stanley, N. (2014). Theories and research in educational technology and distance learning instruction through Blackboard. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 2(2), 161-172. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1053980